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====== On the Make ======


The development of capitalism caused a reinvention of ways in which men "became" men. Formerly, urban manhood was grasped through deferential apprenticeships, where young men obeyed a master, who taught them a livable trade in return for their labor and obedience. However, the rise of impersonal, mass markets made this system - which was built on personal relationships that took years to develop - untenable. Young men chasing wealth and status no longer saw apprenticeship as a path to manhood, but as flying in the face of it. Instead, they shopped around for jobs, negotiating their own benefits and salaries, and quitting when it suited them. This growing trend was abhorred by older generations and established interests, who encouraged young men to show loyalty to their employer, and practice good character traits in order to build the same types of economic relationships that had existed in early modern capitalism. As stated, though, the impersonal nature of a more modern capitalism made this older system redundant, and eventually ensured that the only virtues young men thought worth practicing were industry and self-reliance. (Nick Thodal) {{ :19th_century_male_clerk.png?400|}}

Although young men did not like being subordinate clerks they still found ways to practice their manhood through independence. They would market themselves, negotiate their wages, and when they boarded themselves they could participate in activities unsupervised after work hours. They also pushed against the guidebooks and advice from the older generation to be patient and by doing things their own way they could feel like they were in control of their own lives. They also found ways to make themselves feel less subordinate and inferior by painting others as inferior to them whether it be by being clerks in stores with better reputations, competing against their fellow employees, or other ways. This is especially important because a clerk's salary was not enough to support a family and so they couldn't be patriarchs or in control of other people's lives so all they could do was try to have the most control they could in their own lives. (Katherine Hamilton)

As Luskey illustrates throughout the article, the advent of the industrial revolution shaped the way masculinity and economics were viewed together. In the new mass market economy that shifted the norm away from things like apprenticeships, men were seen more as individual actors within the greater economy and as such given that newfound independence, new expectations of how a proper man would act in this new environment were formed. Men were still praised by the monetary power they attained and the social statues accrued but the means of how they attained that money and status became important as well. Entrepreneurship and market independence became ways to gain masculinity and as such many sought to follow these new avenues, with only those who were fortunate to have drive and opportunity claiming money power and status. ( J.D.J. ) 


Through this chapter we can see that the idea of "being your own boss" was very important as it led to successful manhood throughout early American history and carried over from Europe. In Europe you didn't achieve manhood until you were the lord of your own house with your own wife, children, and servants. In very early colonial America you could achieve manhood through being a merchant of tobacco or another new product and by having a wife and children. In this article you didn't achieve manhood until you opened up your own shop and could take on your own clerks. Having a wife and children was also a goal that signified reaching manhood. However, the process to get there has always been detested by the young men in the first stages whether it be by being a servant, a part of a group of colonizers, or a clerk respectively. Having dependents is also a common theme. So, men not wanting to have to go through the stages of reaching manhood created new ways of becoming men faster through becoming entrepreneurs and marketing their labor themselves instead of being placed in subordinate roles by their parents in order to show that they were self-reliant and independent. (Katherine Hamilton)

This reading tackles nineteenth century clerks and their unstable class positions. These individuals struggle with the balance between capital and labor. They pride themselves on independence and integrity. Their pursuit of capital defines their struggles in society. While clerks were motivated they lacked the capital to start-up projects, access to credit, familial wealth. In order for them to achieve upwards mobility they would have to network, build relationships, and acquire inheritance. Clerks were educated and generally white men but lacked property or long term security. Their positions in society swayed between middle class, working class, and elites. They believe that hard work and good character leads to success, however, most clerks struggled to achieve such independence making clerks the center of blame for failure instead of structural barriers as the cause. This independence is categorized by owning property that produces goods, self-employment, and self-governing labor. Clerks lacked independence from employers and were defenseless against termination. Overall, clerks were excluded from other capitalists due to structural inequality, which limited their chances of success. (Reiley Gibson)

Luskey discussed the social and class mobility that some clerks had depending on the area in which they work. With the education that these clerks receive while apprenticing helps with the social and class mobility being both moving up or downward. Luskey mentions that some clerks take their education serious and use it as a means for self-control and valuable to the market, while some do not and reject the ability that the clerk position will give them in the social mobility. The ability to have motion and movement between classes also depended on the area you lived in, while in England, being a clerk was not something that could give you lots of mobility to climb social classes, however, in America, clerkship did give the mobility to climb in class. (Sage Milton)

===== Individuality as a Social Expectation =====

Luskey’s discussion about the economic opportunities white and financially stable men had access to in the 19th century correlates with the idea of individuality and the ‘pull yourself up by your bootstraps' rhetoric. In America specifically, men are praised for demonstrating independence, autonomy, and self-actualization. Economically, highly successful men are often put on pedestals and idolized for fulfilling the social expectation that men are financially stable and monetarily provide for others. This ideology contributed to the idea that success is determined by effort as opposed to a combination of opportunity and effort. Furthermore, Luckey provided insight into the disproportionate idea of external versus internal effort, particularly as a man, that divides many people. Self-efficacy is a social expectation of men; however, if someone does not have the resources to maximize their potential, their journey to success will not mirror that of others. (Allisya Smith)